There are many reported war crimes involving Allied military forces in World War II. The armed forces of the Soviet Union, in particular, engaged in the mass killing, deportation, forced labour and mistreatment of prisoners of war and civilians, as well as mass rapes and widespread looting in occupied territories. War crimes were also committed by British, American and other Allied forces, but not on the same scale as those of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union.[1] There has been continued debate over whether the British and American strategic bombing campaigns, in which an estimated 800,000 civilians were killed, were war crimes.[1][2]:4–5
After the war, many trials of Axis war criminals took place, most famously, the Nuremberg trials and Tokyo Trials. The Western Allies prosecuted a number of war crimes committed by their own forces, but Allied war crimes were not prosecuted by the post-war international military tribunals.
In the 21st century, historians and other commentators have paid more attention to Allied war crimes, while warning against arguments suggesting a "moral equivalence" between the actions of the Allies and the crimes of the Axis powers.
Background
The military of the major Western Allies – the UK, France and United States – were directed to adhere to the Hague Conventions and Geneva Conventions. The Soviet Union had not signed these conventions.[1][3] In August 1945, the Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) defined war crimes as any violation of the customs of war including the deportation, murder or mistreatment of civilians and prisoners of war (POWS) and any plunder or wanton destruction of property or human settlements not justified by military necessity. The IMT charter also defined crimes against humanity to include the extermination, enslavement, deportation, persecution or inhumane treatment of civilians.[4]:200–201
Major Allies
War crimes were committed by the Western Allied powers, but not on the same scale as those of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union.[1][4]:4–5 The Western Allies prosecuted a number of war crimes committed by their own forces, but Allied war crimes were not prosecuted by the post-war international military tribunals.[1][5]:445–446,671–672
Allied soldiers in the Pacific and Asian theatres sometimes killed Japanese soldiers who were attempting to surrender or after they had surrendered.[6] Historian John W. Dower write that while it was "not official policy" for Allied personnel to take no POWs, "over wide reaches of the Asian battleground it was everyday practice".[7]
There has been continued debate over whether the area bombing of cities in Germany and Japan and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were war crimes.[1][2]:1–2 Although there was no international treaty or customary law at the time specifically prohibiting the aerial bombardment of civilians, there were general principles of international law which might have applied.[8][9]:211–212Eric Markusen and David Kopf argue that the Allied strategic bombing met the IMT definitions of both war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, the issue was not considered at the Nuremberg and Tokyo war crime trials.[10]
A. C. Grayling writes that the unclear legal position means that arguments over the Allied bombing of civilians often concern ethical issues. Critics of area bombing have argued that deliberate attacks on civilian populations are a moral crime, whereas defenders of Allied area bombing often argue that it was a military necessity in a total war where the distinction between the enemy military and civilians aiding the war effort was blurred.[11]:4,135
The Soviet Union was responsible for imprisoning, deporting and often massacring hundreds of thousands of civilians and POWs from occupied or annexed territories.[12][13] This included the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers and intellectuals in 1940[14][15][16][17]:20–23,39–41 and the Gegenmiao massacre of over 1,000 Japanese women and children in 1945.[18]
Mass grave of the victims of the Katyn massacre after discovery in 1943
The Soviet Union inflicted high death rates on POWs through executions, starvation, forced labour and other mistreatment. The mistreatment of prisoners was common on the Eastern front partly because the Soviet Union had not ratified the Geneva Convention on treatment of POWs, and Germany regarded itself as exempt from the convention on that front.[19] Nevertheless, the Nuremberg Tribunal held that the Hague Conventions and other customary laws of war were binding on all belligerents.[20][21][17]:39
About a third of Germans taken prisoner by the Soviet Union died in captivity. In comparison, The mortality rate of German and Japanese prisoners of the Western allies was 1 to 2 per cent.[22][23] Up to 250,000 Japanese prisoners of the Soviet Union died in captivity after the Japanese surrender in August 1945.[24]:10
The Soviet Union made extensive use of forced labour of foreign civilians and POWs. Those civilians and POWs from Soviet-occupied territories who were deported to the Soviet Union were usually imprisoned in the Soviet forced labour camps, known as the gulag.[12] Between 200,000 and one million Soviet POWs and civilians repatriated from German camps were also sent to the gulag as alleged Axis collaborators[25][19] where many died from malnutrition, the harsh climate and overwork.[26][12]
Soviet soldiers also committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially Germany.[27][28]Antony Beevor describes the Soviet rape of German women during the occupation of Germany as the "greatest phenomenon of mass rape in history", and has estimated that at least 1.4 million women were raped in East Prussia, Pomerania, and Silesia alone. He writes that Soviet women and girls liberated from slave labour in Germany were also violated.[29] Soviet premier Joseph Stalin refused to punish the offenders.[30]
The expulsion of 12 million to 14 million ethnic Germans from Soviet occupied territories is estimated to have caused between 500,000 and 2 million deaths from 1944 to 1946.[31]:484–485
The British, with other Allied nations (mainly the U.S.), carried out air raids against enemy cities during World War II, including the bombing of the German city of Dresden, which killed around 25,000 people. While "no agreement, treaty, convention or any other instrument governing the protection of the civilian population or civilian property" from aerial attack was adopted before the war,[32][33] the Hague Conventions did prohibit the bombardment of undefended towns.[34] The city, largely untouched by the war, had functioning rail communications to the Eastern front and was an industrial centre. A USAF historical analysis concluded that Dresden was "a legitimate military target".[35]
According to Alfred de Zayas, there are numerous documented cases of the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force deliberately firing upon shipwreck survivors.[38] In July 1941, the submarine HMS Torbay (under the command of Anthony Miers) was based in the Mediterranean where it sank several German ships. On two occasions, once off the coast of Alexandria, Egypt, and the other off the coast of Crete, the crew attacked and killed dozens of shipwrecked German sailors and troops. None of the shipwrecked survivors posed a major threat to Torbay's crew. Miers made no attempt to hide his actions, and reported them in his official logs. He received a strongly worded reprimand from his superiors following the first incident. Miers' actions violated the Hague Convention of 1907, which banned the killing of shipwreck survivors under any circumstances.[39][40]
On 10 September 1942, the Italian hospital shipArno was torpedoed and sunk by RAF torpedo bombers north-east of Ras el Tin, near Tobruk. The British claimed that a decoded German radio message intimated that the vessel was carrying supplies to the Axis troops.[41]Arno was the third Italian hospital ship sunk by British aircraft after the loss of the Po in the Adriatic Sea to aerial torpedoes on 14 March 1941[42][43] and the bombing of the California off Syracuse on 11 August 1942.[44]
On 18 November 1944, the German hospital ship Tübingen was sunk by two Beaufighter bombers off Pola, in the Adriatic Sea. The vessel had paid a brief visit to the allied-controlled port of Bari to pick up German wounded under the auspices of the Red Cross; despite the calm sea and the good weather that allowed a clear identification of the ship's Red Cross markings, it was attacked with rockets nine times. Six crewmembers were killed.[45] American author Alfred M. de Zayas, who evaluated the 266 extant volumes of the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, identifies the sinking of Tübingen and other German hospital ships as war crimes.[46]
Abuses against civilians and POWs
On 21 April 1945, British soldiers randomly selected and burned two cottages in Seedorf, Germany, in reprisal against local civilians who had hidden German soldiers in their cellars.[47] Historian Sean Longden claims that violence against German prisoners and civilians who refused to cooperate with the British army "could be ignored or made light of".[48]
After the end of the war in Europe, German prisoners in Norway were reportedly forced to clear minefields under British supervision. The Germans complained to British Commander, General Andrew Thorne, but he dismissed the accusations arguing that the Germans prisoners were not POWs but "disarmed forces who had surrendered unconditionally." By 1946, when the cleanup ended, 392 were injured and 275 had died; this was contrary to the terms of the Geneva Conventions.[49][pageneeded]
The "London Cage", a MI19 prisoner of war facility in the UK during and immediately after the war, was subject to allegations of torture.[50] The Bad Nenndorf interrogation centre in occupied Germany, managed by the Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre, was the subject of an official inquiry in 1947, which found that there was "mental and physical torture during the interrogations" and that "personal property of the prisoners were stolen".[51]
Rape and sexual harassment
The Italian statistics record eight rapes and nineteen attempted rapes by British soldiers in Italy between September 1943 and December 1945. Various sources, including the Special Investigation Branch as well as evidences from Belgian reporters, said that rape and sexual harassment by British troops occurred frequently following the invasion of Sicily in 1943.[52]
Rape also took place during the advance towards the Rhine,[53] especially once British forces had entered Germany.[53] During late 1944, with the army based across Belgium and the Netherlands, soldiers were billeted with local families or befriended them. In December 1944, it came to the attention of the authorities that there was a "rise of indecency with children" where abusers had exploited the "atmosphere of trust" that had been created with local families. While the army "attempted to investigate allegations, and some men were convicted, it was an issue that received little publicity."[48]
In Germany, rapes of local women were committed by British and Canadian troops.[54] Even elderly women were targeted.[54] Though the Royal Military Police tended to turn a blind eye towards abuse of German prisoners and civilians who obstructed the army, rape was considered differently. Some officers, however, treated the behaviour of their men with leniency. Some rapes were impulsively committed under the effects of alcohol or post-traumatic stress, but there were cases of premeditated attacks.[48] One such case was the rape of three German women in the town of Neustadt am Rübenberge on a single day in April 1945,[53] or the attempted rape of two local girls at gunpoint in the village of Oyle, near Nienburg, where two soldiers attempted to coerce two girls into going into a nearby wood, and, upon their refusal, one was grabbed and dragged into the woods, where, according to Longden, after she began screaming, "one of the soldiers pulled a gun to silence her. Whether intentionally or in error, the gun went off, hitting her in the throat and killing her."[54]
Sean Longden highlights that "Some officers failed to treat reports of rape with gravity." He provides the example of a medic, who had a rape reported to him. In cooperation with the Royal Military Police, they were able to track down and apprehend the perpetrators who were then identified by the victim. When the two culprits "were taken before their CO. His response was alarming. He insisted since the men were going on leave no action could be taken and that his word was final."[48]
During the Allied occupation of Japan, British and Commonwealth troops in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) committed 62 recorded rapes. The commander of the BCOF's official reports state that members of the BCOF were convicted of committing 57 rapes in the period May 1946 to December 1947 and a further 23 between January 1948 and September 1951. No official statistics on the incidence of serious crimes during the BCOF's first three months in Japan (February to April 1946) are available.[55] Australian historian Robin Gerster contends that while the official statistics underestimate the level of serious crime among BCOF members, Japanese police often did not pass reports they received on to the BCOF and that the serious crimes which were reported were properly investigated by BCOF military police. The penalties given to members of the BCOF convicted of serious crimes were "not severe", however, and those imposed on Australians were often mitigated or quashed by Australian courts.[56]
On 23 May 1945, British troops in Schleswig-Holstein were alleged to have plundered Glücksburg castle, stealing many valuable pieces such as jewellery and art, while also holding the ducal family prisoner at gunpoint. In addition, 38 coffins from the castle's mausoleum were desecrated, with large areas of the castle itself also vandalized. Many of the stolen objects however were returned to the castle by 1948 at the request of Queen Mary, mother of George VI and niece of Friedrich Ferdinand.[58]
During the Burma campaign, there are recorded instances of British and Indian troops removing gold teeth from dead Japanese troops and displaying Japanese skulls as trophies.[59]
Dachau liberation reprisals. Soldiers of the US Seventh Army and SS prisoners in a coal yard at Dachau concentration camp during its liberation. April 29, 1945 (US Army photograph)
Canicattì massacre: killing of Italian civilians by Lieutenant Colonel McCaffrey. A confidential inquiry was made, but McCaffrey was never charged with an offense relating to the incident. He died in 1954. This incident remained virtually unknown until Joseph S. Salemi of New York University, whose father witnessed it, publicized it.[61][62]
Chenogne massacre: On 1 January 1945, members of the 11th Armored Division executed 80 Wehrmacht soldiers, which were assembled in a field and shot with machine guns.[65] The events were covered up at the time, and none of the perpetrators were ever punished. Postwar historians believe the killings were carried out on verbal orders by senior commanders that "no prisoners were to be taken".[66] General George S. Patton confirmed in his diary that the Americans "...also murdered 50 odd German med [sic]. I hope we can conceal this".[67]
Lippach massacre: On 22 April 1945 American soldiers from the 23rd Tank Battalion of the 12th Armored Division killed 24 Waffen SS soldiers who had been taken prisoners of war in the German town of Lippach. Members of the same unit are also alleged to have raped 20 women in the town.[69]
Audouville-la-Hubert massacre: On 1944, ~30 German Wehrmacht prisoners were killed by US paratroopers near the French village of Audouville-la-Hubert, allegedly as retaliation for the high casualties during Operation Overlord.[70]
Dachau liberation reprisals: Upon the liberation of Dachau concentration camp on 29 April 1945, about a dozen guards in the camp were shot by a machine gunner who was guarding them. Other soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 157th Infantry Regiment, of the US 45th (Thunderbird) Division killed other guards who resisted. In all, about 30 were killed, according to the commanding officer Felix L. Sparks.[71][72] Later, Colonel Howard Buechner wrote that more than 500 were killed.[73][74]
Laconia incident: US aircraft attacking Germans rescuing the sinking British troopship in the Atlantic Ocean. For example, the pilots of a United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-24 Liberator bomber, despite knowing the U-boat's location, intentions, and the presence of British seamen, killed dozens of Laconia's survivors with bombs and strafing attacks, forcing U-156 to cast their remaining survivors into the sea and crash dive to avoid being destroyed.
Operation Teardrop: Eight of the surviving, captured crewmen from the sunken German submarine U-546 were tortured by US military personnel. Historian Philip K. Lundeberg has written that the beating and torture of U-546's survivors was a singular atrocity motivated by the interrogators' desire to quickly get information on what the US believed were potential V-1 flying bombs or V-2 rocket attacks on the continental US by German submarines.[75][76]
Bombing of Gorla: On 20 October 1944, a US B-24heavy bomber belonging to the Fifteenth Air Force unloaded a set of approximately 10 tons of bombs on the heavily populated Milanese suburbs of Gorla and Precotto. The main stairwell of Gorla's Francesco Crispi Elementary School was hit as the children and school personnel were rushing down to the air raid shelters. The explosion killed 184 of the 200 children as well as the entire staff of 19 teachers at the school.[77][78][79][80] There were some 614 victims in the neighborhood as a whole. In 2019 Milan's mayor Giuseppe Sala appealed to US authorities to apologize for the bombing.[81]
Bombing of Grosseto: On 26 April 1943, day of Easter Monday, the city of Grosseto, Tuscany, was struck by over 2,000 cluster bombs dropped by Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress aircraft from the US Army's Twelfth Air Force.[82] The air raid began at 2 PM, when most citizens were in the streets celebrating the holiday. For unknown reasons, 19 of the 48 assigned military planes diverged from their path and began attacking the city itself, instead of the targeted airport.[83] At least 134 inhabitants were killed, mostly children aged between 5 and 14 who were playing at a funfair in the Porta Vecchia suburb.[82][83] The air raid sirens initially did not sound, and most victims died before being able to reach the air raid shelters on the city's walls.[82] The residential areas of Grosseto, located around the historic centre, sustained heavy damage during the attacks. The raid also hit care buildings such as the Red Cross hospital set up in the diocese's seminary and the House of Mother and Child.[82]
No quarter
No quarter orders were occasionally issued by allied commanders during the war, according to historian Peter Lieb, many US and Canadian units were explicitly ordered not to take enemy prisoners during the D-Day landings in Normandy. If correct, this may explain the fate of 64 German prisoners (out of the 130 captured) who did not make it to the POW collecting point on Omaha Beach on the day of the landings.[84] Massacres of unarmed civilians (including arbitrary executions of suspected civilian snipers and collaborators) were also not uncommon: during the invasion of Sicily, several massacres of civilians by US troops were reported, including in the town of Vittoria, where 12 Italians died (including a 17-year-old boy),[85] and in Piano Stella, where a group of civilians were murdered.[86]
In the aftermath of the Malmedy massacre, a written order from the HQ of the 328th US Army Infantry Regiment, dated 21 December 1944, stated: No SS troops or paratroopers will be taken prisoner but will be shot on sight.[87] Major-General Raymond Hufft (US Army) gave instructions to his troops not to take prisoners when they crossed the Rhine in 1945. "After the war, when he reflected on the war crimes he authorized, he admitted, 'if the Germans had won, I would have been on trial at Nuremberg instead of them.'"[88]Stephen Ambrose related: "I've interviewed well over 1000 combat veterans. Only one of them said he shot a prisoner ... Perhaps as many as one-third of the veterans ... however, related incidents in which they saw other GIs shooting unarmed German prisoners who had their hands up."[89]
According to an article in Der Spiegel by Klaus Wiegrefe, many personal memoirs of Allied soldiers have been wilfully ignored by historians until now because they were at odds with the "greatest generation" mythology surrounding World War II. However, this has recently started to change, with books such as The Day of Battle, by Rick Atkinson, in which he describes Allied war crimes in Italy, and D-Day: The Battle for Normandy, by Antony Beevor.[84] Beevor's latest work suggests that Allied war crimes in Normandy were much more extensive "than was previously realized".[70]
Among American WWII veterans who admitted to having committed war crimes was former MafiahitmanFrank Sheeran. In interviews with his biographer Charles Brandt, Sheeran recalled his war service with the Thunderbird Division as the time when he first developed a callousness to the taking of human life. By his own admission, Sheeran participated in numerous massacres and summary executions of German POWs, acts which violated the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and the 1929 Geneva Convention on POWs. In his interviews with Brandt, Sheeran divided such massacres into four different categories.
Revenge killings in the heat of battle. Sheeran told Brandt that, when a German soldier had just killed his close friends and then tried to surrender, he would often "send him to hell, too." He described often witnessing similar behavior by fellow GIs.[90]
Orders from unit commanders during a mission. When describing his first murder for organized crime, Sheeran recalled: "It was just like when an officer would tell you to take a couple of German prisoners back behind the line and for you to 'hurry back'. You did what you had to do."[91]
The Dachau massacre and other reprisal killings of concentration camp guards and trustee inmates.[92]
Calculated attempts to dehumanize and degrade German POWs. While Sheeran's unit was climbing the Harz Mountains, they came upon a Wehrmacht mule train carrying food and drink up the mountainside. The female cooks were first allowed to leave unmolested, then Sheeran and his fellow GIs "ate what we wanted and soiled the rest with our waste." Then the Wehrmacht mule drivers were given shovels and ordered to "dig their own shallow graves." Sheeran later joked that they did so without complaint, likely hoping that he and his buddies would change their minds. But the mule drivers were shot and buried in the holes they had dug. Sheeran explained that by then, "I had no hesitation in doing what I had to do."[93]
Elements of Sheeran's reasoning are supported by historian James J. Weingartner. Weingartner states that "Prisoners were killed in reprisal for real or imagined atrocities, for the utilitarian reason that keeping them was impractical or inconvenient, or out of frustration with a war that was going badly or was being unnecessarily prolonged by the enemy. Civilians often fell victim to the fury of ground combatants, particularly in situations where occupying forces were real or imagined objects of guerilla warfare".[94] James J. Weingartner also identified what he views as a disparity in treatment between American and German war crimes in the court martial of American soldiers and the post-war trials of Germans, arguing that United States war crimes were judged "by a more indulgent standard" than comparable German atrocities, particularly in regard to the principle of following orders.[95]
Pacific theater
American soldiers in the Pacific often deliberately killed Japanese soldiers who had surrendered. According to Richard J. Aldrich, a professor of history at the University of Warwick, who has published a study of the diaries kept by United States and Australian soldiers, they sometimes massacred prisoners of war.[96] Dower states that in "many instances ... Japanese who did become prisoners were killed on the spot or en route to prison compounds".[7] According to Aldrich it was common practice for U.S. troops not to take prisoners.[97] This analysis is supported by British historian Niall Ferguson,[98] who also says that, in 1943, "a secret [U.S.] intelligence report noted that only the promise of ice cream and three days leave would ... induce American troops not to kill surrendering Japanese".[98]
Ferguson states such practices played a role in the ratio of Japanese prisoners to dead being 1:100 in late 1944. That same year, efforts were taken by Allied high commanders to suppress "take no prisoners" attitudes,[98] among their own personnel (as these were affecting intelligence gathering) and to encourage Japanese soldiers to surrender. Ferguson adds that measures by Allied commanders to improve the ratio of Japanese prisoners to Japanese dead, resulted in it reaching 1:7, by mid-1945. Nevertheless, taking no prisoners was still standard practice among US troops at the Battle of Okinawa, in April–June 1945.[98] Ferguson also suggests that "it was not only the fear of disciplinary action or of dishonor that deterred German and Japanese soldiers from surrendering. More important for most soldiers was the perception that prisoners would be killed by the enemy anyway, and so one might as well fight on."[99]
Ulrich Straus, a US Japanologist, suggests that frontline troops intensely hated Japanese military personnel and were "not easily persuaded" to take or protect prisoners, as they believed that Allied personnel who surrendered, got "no mercy" from the Japanese.[100] Allied soldiers believed that Japanese soldiers were inclined to feign surrender in order to make surprise attacks, a practice which was outlawed by the Hague Convention of 1907.[101][100] Therefore, according to Straus, "Senior officers opposed the taking of prisoners on the grounds that it needlessly exposed American troops to risks".[100] When prisoners nevertheless were taken at Guadalcanal, interrogator Army Captain Burden noted that many times these were shot during transport because "it was too much bother to take him in".[102]
US historian James J. Weingartner attributes the very low number of Japanese in US POW compounds to two important factors, a Japanese reluctance to surrender and a widespread American "conviction that the Japanese were "animals" or "subhuman" and unworthy of the normal treatment accorded to POWs.[103] The latter reason is supported by Ferguson, who says that "Allied troops often saw the Japanese in the same way that Germans regarded Russians—as Untermenschen".[98]
Shooting of shipwreck survivors
On January 26, 1943, the submarine USS Wahoo fired on survivors in lifeboats from the Japanese transport Buyo Maru. Vice AdmiralCharles A. Lockwood asserted that the survivors were Japanese soldiers who had turned machine-gun and rifle fire on the Wahoo after she surfaced, and that such resistance was common in submarine warfare.[104] According to the submarine's executive officer, the fire was intended to force the Japanese soldiers to abandon their boats and none of them were deliberately targeted.[105] Historian Clay Blair stated that the submarine's crew fired first and the shipwrecked survivors returned fire with handguns.[106] The survivors were later determined to have included Allied POWs of the Indian 2nd Battalion, 16th Punjab Regiment, who were guarded by Japanese Army Forces from the 26th Field Ordnance Depot.[107] Of 1,126 men originally aboard Buyo Maru, 195 Indians and 87 Japanese died, some killed during the torpedoing of the ship and some killed by the shootings afterwards.[108]
On 4 March 1943, during and after the Battle of the Bismarck Sea (March 3–5, 1943), General George Kenney ordered U.S. patrol boats and Allied aircraft to attack Japanese rescue vessels, as well as the approximately 1,000 survivors from eight sunken Japanese troop transport ships on life rafts and swimming or floating in the sea.[109][110] This was later State justified on the grounds that the rescued servicemen were next to their destination, and would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service in the battle.[109][111] Many of the Allied aircrew accepted the attacks as necessary, while others were sickened.[112]
After the war, Fleet AdmiralNimitz, the wartime commander-in-chief of the US Pacific Fleet, provided unapologetic written testimony on Karl Dönitz's behalf at his trial that the US Navy had waged unrestricted submarine warfare (including attacks on hospital, rescue and transport vessels, as well as the shooting of prisoners and shipwreck survivors) in the Pacific from the very first day the US entered the war.[113]
U.S. Navy Lieutenant (j.g.) E. V. McPherson with a Japanese skull on board PT-341
In the Pacific theater, Allied servicemen engaged in human trophy collecting from Japanese soldiers. The phenomenon of "trophy-taking", especially by American personnel, occurred on "a scale large enough to concern the Allied military authorities throughout the conflict, and was widely reported and commented on in the American and Japanese wartime press", with magazines and journals reporting widespread cases. Franklin Roosevelt himself was reportedly given a gift of a letter-opener made of a Japanese soldier's arm by U.S. Representative Francis E. Walter in 1944, which Roosevelt later ordered to be returned, calling for its proper burial.[114]:65[115]:825 The news was also widely reported to the Japanese public, where the Americans were portrayed as "deranged, primitive, racist and inhuman". This, compounded by a previous Life magazine picture of a young woman with a skull trophy, was reprinted in the Japanese media and presented as a symbol of "American barbarism", causing national shock and outrage.[116][115]:833[115]
The collection of Japanese body parts began quite early in the war, prompting a September 1942 order for disciplinary action against such souvenir taking.[115] Harrison concludes that, since this was the first real opportunity to take such items (the Battle of Guadalcanal), "clearly, the collection of body parts on a scale large enough to concern the military authorities had started as soon as the first living or dead Japanese bodies were encountered".[115]
When Japanese remains were repatriated from the Mariana Islands after the war, roughly 60 percent were missing their skulls.[115]
In a 13 June 1944 memorandum, the US Army Judge Advocate General (JAG) Major General Myron C. Cramer, asserted that "such atrocious and brutal policies", were both "repugnant to the sensibilities of all civilized people"[103] and also violations of the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, which stated that: "After each engagement, the occupant of the field of battle shall take measures to search for the wounded and dead, and to protect them against pillage and maltreatment."[117] Cramer recommended the distribution to all commanders of a directive ordering them to prohibit the misuse of enemy body parts.[103]
These practices were also in violation of the unwritten customary rules of land warfare and could lead to the death penalty.[103] The US Navy JAG mirrored that opinion one week later, and also added that "the atrocious conduct of which some US personnel were guilty could lead to retaliation by the Japanese which would be justified under international law".[103]
Rape
Secret wartime files made public only in 2006 reveal that American GIs committed more than 400 sexual offenses in Europe, including 126 rapes in England, between 1942 and 1945.[118] A study by Robert J. Lilly estimates that a total of 14,000 civilian women in England, France and Germany were raped by American GIs during World War II.[119][120] It is estimated that there were around 3,500 rapes by American servicemen in France between June 1944 and the end of the war and one historian has claimed that sexual violence against women in liberated France was common.[121]
In Taken by Force, J. Robert Lilly estimates the number of rapes committed by US servicemen in Germany to be 11,040.[122] As in the case of the American occupation of France after the D-Day invasion, many of the American rapes in Germany in 1945 were gang rapes committed by armed soldiers at gunpoint.[123]
Although non-fraternization policies were instituted for the Americans in Germany, the phrase "copulation without conversation is not fraternization" was used as a motto by United States Army troops.[124] The journalist Osmar White, a war correspondent from Australia who served with the American troops during the war, wrote that
After the fighting moved on to German soil, there was a good deal of rape by combat troops and those immediately following them. The incidence varied between unit and unit according to the attitude of the commanding officer. In some cases offenders were identified, tried by court martial, and punished. The army legal branch was reticent, but admitted that for brutal or perverted sexual offences against German women, some soldiers had been shot–particularly if they happened to be Negroes. Yet I know for a fact that many women were raped by white Americans. No action was taken against the culprits. In one sector a report went round that a certain very distinguished army commander made the wisecrack, 'Copulation without conversation does not constitute fraternisation.'[125]
A typical victimization with sexual assault by drunken American personnel marching through occupied territory involved threatening a German family with weapons, forcing one or more women to engage in sex, and putting the entire family out on the street afterward.[124]
Black and Colored soldiers of America's segregated occupation force were both more likely to be charged with rape, and to be more severely punished.[123]Heide Fehrenbach writes that, "while the American black soldiers were in fact by no means free from indiscipline":
The point, rather, is that American officials exhibited an explicit interest in a soldier's race, and then only if he were black, when reporting behavior they feared would undermine either the status or the political aims of the US Military Government in Germany.[126]
Carol Huntington writes that American soldiers who raped German women and then left "gifts" or food for them may have permitted themselves to view the act as a prostitution rather than rape. Citing the work of a Japanese historian alongside this suggestion, Huntington writes that Japanese women who begged for food "were raped and soldiers sometimes left food for those they raped."[123]
Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes based on several years of research:
Soon after the U.S. Marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. At the time, there were only women, children, and old people in the village, as all the young men had been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing, the Marines "mopped up" the entire village, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking advantage of the situation, they started 'hunting for women' in broad daylight, and those women who were hiding in the village or nearby air raid shelters were dragged out one after another.[128]
According to interviews carried out by The New York Times and published by them in 2000, several elderly people from an Okinawan village confessed that after the United States had won the Battle of Okinawa, three armed Marines kept coming to the village every week to force the villagers to gather all the local women, who were then carried off into the hills and raped. The article goes deeper into the matter and claims that the villagers' tale—true or not—is part of a "dark, long-kept secret" the unraveling of which "refocused attention on what historians say is one of the most widely ignored crimes of the war": 'the widespread rape of Okinawan women by American servicemen."[129] Although Japanese reports of rape were largely ignored at the time, academic estimates have been that as many as 10,000 Okinawan women may have been raped. It has been claimed that the rape was so prevalent that most Okinawans over age 65 around the year 2000 either knew or had heard of a woman who was raped in the aftermath of the war. Military officials denied the mass rapings, and all surviving veterans refused The New York Times' request for an interview.[130]
Professor of East Asian Studies and expert on Okinawa, Steve Rabson, said: "I have read many accounts of such rapes in Okinawan newspapers and books, but few people know about them or are willing to talk about them."[130] He notes that plenty of old local books, diaries, articles and other documents refer to rapes by American soldiers of various races and backgrounds.
An explanation given for why the US military has no record of any rapes is that few—if any—Okinawan women reported abuse, mostly out of fear and embarrassment. According to Nago, Okinawan police spokesman: "Victimized women feel too ashamed to make it public."[130] Those who did report them are believed by historians to have been ignored by the U.S. military police. A large scale effort to determine the extent of such crimes has also never been called for. Over five decades after the war has ended the women who were believed to have been raped still refused to give a public statement, with friends, local historians and university professors who had spoken with the women instead saying they preferred not to discuss it publicly. Many people wondered why it never came to light after the inevitable American-Japanese babies the many women must have given birth to. In interviews, historians and Okinawan elders said that some of those Okinawan women who were raped and did not commit suicide did give birth to biracial children, but that many of them were immediately killed or left behind out of shame, disgust or fearful trauma. More often, however, rape victims underwent crude abortions with the help of village midwives. A large scale effort to determine the possible extent of these crimes has never been conducted. Over five decades after the war had ended, in the late 1990s, the women who were believed to have been raped still overwhelmingly refused to give public statements, instead speaking through relatives and a number of historians and scholars.[130]
There is substantial evidence that the U.S. had at least some knowledge of what was going on. Samuel Saxton, a retired captain, explained that the American veterans and witnesses may have intentionally kept the rape a secret, largely out of shame: "It would be unfair for the public to get the impression that we were all a bunch of rapists after we worked so hard to serve our country."[130] Military officials formally denied the mass rapes, and all surviving related veterans refused request for interviews from The New York Times. Masaie Ishihara, a sociology professor, supports this: "There is a lot of historical amnesia out there, many people don't want to acknowledge what really happened."[130] Author George Feifer in his book Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb, noted that by 1946 there had been fewer than 10 reported cases of rape in Okinawa. He explained that it was "partly because of shame and disgrace, partly because Americans were victors and occupiers". Feifer claimed: "In all there were probably thousands of incidents, but the victims' silence kept rape another dirty secret of the campaign."[131]
However, American professor of Japanese studies Michael S. Molasky and some other authors have argued that they noted that Okinawan civilians "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy."[132][133] According to Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by the American Mark Selden, the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned."[134]
According to some authors, there were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa Prefecture after the Japanese surrender,[127] however author Brian Walsh states that this claim originates from a misreading of Japanese Government crime figures that had actually reported 1,326 criminal incidents of all types involving American forces, including an unspecified number of rapes.[135]
In the American-occupied zones in Germany and Austria, the number of rapes peaked in 1945 (similarly to the Soviet and British sectors of the occupation), but a high rate of violence against German and Austrian populations by American forces lasted at least into the first half of 1946, with five cases of dead German women found in American barracks in May and June 1946 alone.[123]
In 2015, German news magazine Der Spiegel reported that German historian Miriam Gebhardt "believes that members of the US military raped as many as 190,000 German women by the time West Germany regained sovereignty in 1955, with most of the assaults taking place in the months immediately following the US invasion of Nazi Germany. The author bases her claims in large part on reports kept by Bavarian priests in the summer of 1945."[136]
There has been relatively little research into the general treatment of Japanese prisoners of war taken by Chinese Nationalist forces, such as the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), according to R. J. Rummel.[137] However, civilians and conscripts, as well as Japanese civilians in China, were frequently maltreated by the Chinese military. Rummel says that Chinese peasants "often had no less to fear from their own soldiers than ... from the Japanese".[138] The Nationalist military was reinforced by recruits gained through violent campaigns of conscription directed at Chinese civilians. According to Rummel:
This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps... Probably 3,081,000 died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1,131,000 during the Civil War—4,212,000 dead in total. Just during conscription [emphasis added].[139]
Within some intakes of Nationalist conscripts, there was a death rate of 90% from disease, starvation or violence before they commenced training.[140]
Examples of war crimes committed by Chinese associated forces include:
in 1937 near Shanghai, the killing, torture and assault of Japanese POWs and Chinese civilians accused of collaboration, were recorded in photographs taken by Swiss businessman Tom Simmen.[141] In 1996, Simmen's son released the pictures, showing Nationalist Chinese soldiers committing summary executions by decapitation and shooting, as well as public torture.
Nationalist troops in Hubei Province, during May 1943, ordered whole towns to evacuate and then "plundered" them; any civilians who refused or were unable to leave, were killed.[138]
Three days later, on 19 May, 79 of these detainees were taken to Abbeville and locked up under the music kiosk on the market square. When the city of Abbeville was heavily bombed from the air by German squadrons on the night of 19 to 20 May, the French guards feared the prisoners would be released by the Germans and decided to summarily execute them.[144] Twenty-one prisoners were taken from the kiosk, placed against the wall, and shot without trial on the orders of the French CapitaineMarcel Dingeon, who was Abbeville's deputy commander. Of the dead, only four were found to have actually worked for the Germans. Dingeon killed himself several months after France surrendered. In January 1942, two French soldiers who participated in the massacre, Lieutenant René Caron and SergeantÉmile Molet, were tried by a German court-martial in wartime Paris. They were sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on 7 April 1942 at Mont-Valérien.[145]
Maquis
Following the Operation Dragoon landings in southern France and the collapse of the German military occupation in August 1944, large numbers of German troops could not escape from France and surrendered to the French Forces of the Interior. The Resistance executed a few of the Wehrmacht and most of the Gestapo and SS prisoners.[146]
The Maquis also executed 17 German prisoners of war at Saint-Julien-de-Crempse (in the Dordogne region), on 10 September 1944, 14 of whom have since been positively identified. The murders were revenge killings for German murders of 17 local inhabitants of the village of St. Julien on 3 August 1944, which were themselves reprisal killings in response to Resistance activity in the St. Julien region, which was home to an active Maquis cell.[147]
French Moroccan troops of the French Expeditionary Corps, known as Goumiers, committed mass crimes in Italy during and after the Battle of Monte Cassino[148] and in Germany.[149] According to Italian sources, more than 12,000 civilians, above all young and old women, children, were kidnapped, raped, or killed by Goumiers.[150] This is featured in the Italian film La Ciociara (Two Women) with Sophia Loren.
French troops took part in the invasion of Germany, and France was assigned an occupation zone in Germany. Perry Biddiscombe quotes the original survey estimates that the French Goumiers for instance committed "385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt."[151] The soldiers are also alleged to have committed widespread rape in the Höfingen District near Leonberg.[152] Katz and Kaiser,[153] though they mention rape, found no specific occurrences in either Höfingen or Leonberg compared to other towns. Anthony Clayton, in his book France, Soldiers, and Africa,[154] devotes several pages to the criminal activities of the Goumiers, which he partially ascribes to typical practices in their homeland.
Other Allies
Australia
According to historian Mark Johnston, "the killing of unarmed Japanese was common" and Australian command tried to put pressure on troops to actually take prisoners, but the troops proved reluctant.[155] When prisoners were indeed taken "it often proved difficult to prevent them from killing captured Japanese before they could be interrogated".[156] According to Johnston, as a consequence of this type of behavior, "Some Japanese soldiers were almost certainly deterred from surrendering to Australians".[156]
Major General Paul Cullen indicated that the killing of Japanese prisoners in the Kokoda Track Campaign was not uncommon. In one instance he recalled during the battle at Gorari that "the leading platoon captured five or seven Japanese and moved on to the next battle. The next platoon came along and bayoneted these Japanese."[157] He also stated that he found the killings understandable but that it had left him feeling guilty.
Charles P. Stacey, the Canadian official campaign historian, reports that on 14 April 1945 rumours spread that the popular commanding officer of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick E. Wigle, had been killed by a civilian sniper. This rumour resulted in the Highlanders setting fire to civilian property in the town of Friesoythe in an act of reprisal.[159] Stacey later wrote that the Canadian troops first removed German civilians from their property before setting the houses on fire; he commented that he was "glad to say that [he] never heard of another such case".[160] It was later found that German soldiers had killed the Argylls' commander.[161]
Alleged war crimes, crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians.
No prosecutions.
The victims were mostly Yugoslav collaborationist troops (ethnic Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes), but also included a number of civilians. They were executed without trial in an act of vengeance for the genocide committed by the pro-Axis collaborationist states (in particular the Ustaše) installed by the Nazis during the German occupation of Yugoslavia.[162]
War crimes, crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians.
No prosecutions.
1944–1945 killings of ethnic Germans (Danube Swabians), Rusyns (Ruthenians) and Hungarians in Bačka, as well as Serb prisoners of war and civilians.[175]
Crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians.
No prosecutions.
Massacres of prisoners of war, and their families.[180]
Comparative death rates of POWs
According to James D. Morrow, "Death rates of POWs held is one measure of adherence to the standards of the treaties because substandard treatment leads to death of prisoners". The "democratic states generally provide good treatment of POWs".[181]
After the surrender of Germany, the conditions of recently German personnel apprehended by the Allies significantly worsened; it is estimated that tens of thousands of prisoners died from hunger and disease at that stage. The Allies were not prepared for the large influx of POWs, and conveniently argued that the POW status was not eligible for the military person taken into custody after the surrender, as the German state ceased to exist (the German captives were instead designated Disarmed Enemy Forces or Surrendered Enemy Personnel.[182] Similar argument was made for the Japanese Surrendered Personnel .[183]:322
Killed by the Allied powers
German POWs in East European (not including the Soviet Union) hands 32.9%[98]
German soldiers held by Soviet Union: 15–33% (14.7% in The Dictators by Richard Overy, 35.8% in Ferguson)[98]
Italian soldiers held by the Soviet Union: 79%[184]
Western Allied POWs held by Japan: 27%[186] (Figures for Japan may be misleading, as sources indicate that either 10,800[187] or 19,000[188] of 35,756 fatalities among Allied POW's were from "friendly fire" at sea when their transport ships were sunk. The Geneva convention required the labelling of hospital ships as such, but had no provision for the labelling of such craft as POW ships. All sides killed many of their own POWs when sinking enemy ships.)
Historians in the 21st century have showed an increasing interest in Allied war crimes.[84][70][189]:1–2 Grayling argues that that this interest is legitimate but should not descend into revisionist arguments that Allied actions were morally equivalent to the Holocaust and other major war crimes committed by Germany and Japan.[190]:4–5
Japanese neo-nationalists argue that the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal represented "victors' justice" and that Allied war crimes were equivalent to those committed by Japanese forces during the war.[193] American historian John W. Dower has written that this position is "a kind of historiographic cancellation of immorality—as if the transgressions of others exonerate one's own crimes".[194]
See also
War crimes committed by the Axis powers and their collaborators
↑The caption for the photograph in the US National Archives reads, "SC208765, Soldiers of the 42nd Infantry Division, US Seventh Army, order SS men to come forward when one of their number tried to escape from the Dachau, Germany, concentration camp after it was captured by US forces. Men on the ground in background feign death by falling as the guards fired a volley at the fleeing SS men. (157th Regt. 4/29/45)."[60] Lt. Colonel Felix L. Sparks disputed this and thought that it "represented the initial step in the cover-up of the execution of German guards".[60]
↑About 43,600 deaths on a total of approx 730,000 POWs and military internees. Another 13,269 were killed between September 1943 and February 1944 in the sinking of seven ships carrying them from Greece to German-controlled ports. A further 5,000 to 6,000 Italian POW were murdered by the Germans after they had surrendered in the Massacre of the Acqui Division.
↑Bass, Gary J. (2023). Judgement at Tokyo: World War II on Trial and the Making of Modern Asia. London: Picador. ISBN9781509812752.
↑Zemskov V. N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992; Ellman 2002.
↑Robert Gellately (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, ISBN978-1-4000-4005-6 pp. 391-396
↑Bird, Nicky (October 2002). "Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor". International Affairs. 78 (4). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 914–916.
↑Lt Col R.G.W. Stephens (2000). Hoare, Oliver (ed.). Camp 020: MI5 and the Nazi Spies. Public Records Office. p.7. ISBN1-903365-08-2.
↑Emsley, Clive (2013) Soldier, Sailor, Beggarman, Thief: Crime and the British Armed Services since 1914. Oxford University Press, USA, p. 128-129; ISBN0199653712
↑Weingartner, James J. (1989). "Massacre at Biscari: Patton and an American War Crime". The Historian. 52: 24–39. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1989.tb00772.x.
↑Sorge, Martin K. (23 July 1986). The Other Price of Hitler's War: German Military and Civilian Losses Resulting From World War II. Greenwood Press. p.147. ISBN978-0-313-25293-8.
↑Buechner, Howard (1986). Dachau: The Hour of the Avenger. New York: Thunderbird Press. p.97. ISBN0913159042.
↑Lundeberg, Philip K. (1994). "Operation Teardrop Revisited". In Runyan, Timothy J.; Copes, Jan M (eds.). To Die Gallantly: The Battle of the Atlantic. Boulder: Westview Press. pp.221–6. ISBN0-8133-8815-5.
↑Blair, Clay (1998). Hitler's U-Boat War. The Hunted, 1942–1945. Modern Library. New York: Random House. p.687. ISBN0-679-64033-9.
↑Weingartner, James J. (2008). "Americans, Germans, and War Crimes: Converging Narratives from "The Good War"". The Journal of American History. 94 (4): 1165. doi:10.2307/25095324. ISSN0021-8723. JSTOR25095324.
↑Weingartner, James J. (2008). "Americans, Germans, and War Crimes: Converging Narratives from "The Good War"". The Journal of American History. 94 (4): 1166–1175. doi:10.2307/25095324. ISSN0021-8723. JSTOR25095324.
1234567891011Ferguson, Niall (2004). "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat". War in History. 11 (2): 148–92. doi:10.1191/0968344504wh291oa. S2CID159610355.
↑Niall Ferguson, "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat", War in History, 2004, 11 (2): p.176.
12345Weingartner, J. J. (1992). "Trophies of War: US Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941–1945". Pacific Historical Review. 61 (1): 53–67. doi:10.2307/3640788. JSTOR3640788.
12Schrijvers, Peter (1998). The Crash of Ruin: American Combat Soldiers in Europe During World War II. New York: New York University Press. p. 183. ISBN0-8147-8089-X.
↑White, Osmar (1996). Conquerors' Road: An Eyewitness Report of Germany 1945. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 97–98. ISBN0-521-83051-6.
↑Sims, Calvin (1 June 2000). "3 Dead Marines and a Secret of Wartime Okinawa". The New York Times. Nago, Japan. Retrieved 6 April 2015. Still, the villagers' tale of a dark, long-kept secret has refocused attention on what historians say is one of the most widely ignored crimes of the war, the widespread rape of Okinawan women by American servicemen.
↑Katz, Kaiser "[Chaos, Angst und leise Hoffnung. Kriegsende und französische Besatzung, in: Cornelia Kaiser, Ingrid Katz, Zwischen Hunger und Hoffnung. Nachkriegsalltag in Leonberg, Leonberg 1998, S. 7–12]
↑Clayton, Anthony (1988). France, Soldiers, and Africa. Brassey's Defence Publishers. ISBN978-0080347486.
↑Mark Johnston, Fighting the enemy: Australian soldiers and their adversaries in World War II pp. 80–81
12Mark Johnston, Fighting the enemy: Australian soldiers and their adversaries in World War II p. 81
↑Kevin Baker, Paul Cullen, citizen and soldier: the life and times of Major-General Paul Cullen AC, CBE, DSC and Bar, ED, FCA p. 146
↑Mitch-am, Samuel W. and Eon Hohenstaufen, Stephen. 'The Battle of Sicily: How the Allies Lost Their Chance for Total Victory.' Stack pole Books, 2007, ISBN9780811734035.
↑"....Già nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre, nell'autunno del 1943, si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso, parossismo nazionalista, rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era, e cessò di essere, la Venezia Giulia. Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria, e un disegno annessionistico slavo, che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947, e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una 'pulizia etnica'. Quel che si può dire di certo è che si consumò - nel modo più evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe - una delle barbarie del secolo scorso." From the official website of The Presidency of the Italian Republic, Giorgio Napolitano, official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo" Quirinal, Rome, 10 February 2007.
↑Only 10032 repatriated POW on approx 48000 arrived in the POW camps. Another 22000 died during the marches to the camps, Thomas Schlemmer, Invasori, non vittime – La campagna italiana di Russia 1941–1943, Bari, Laterza, 2009, ISBN978-88-420-7981-1, page 153
↑Gavan Daws, "Prisoners of the Japanese: POWs of World War II in the Pacific", p.297.
↑Donald L. Miller, "D-Days in the Pacific", p.317.
↑Grayling, A. C. (2014). Among the Dead Cities: Is the Targeting of Civilians in War Ever Justified?. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN978-1-4725-2603-8.
↑Grayling, A. C. (2014). Among the Dead Cities: Is the Targeting of Civilians in War Ever Justified?. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN978-1-4725-2603-8.
↑Atkins, Stephen E. (2009). Holocaust Denial as an International Movement. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp.60, 105, 147, 178, 200. ISBN9780313345388.
↑Lipstadt, Deborah (1993). Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. New York: The Free Press. pp.41–43. ISBN0029192358.
↑Bass, Gary J. (2023). Judgement at Tokyo: World War II on Trial and the Making of Modern Asia. London: Picador. pp.10–13. ISBN9781509812752.
↑Dower, John W (2002). ""An Aptitude for Being Unloved: War and Memory in Japan". In Bartov, Omer; etal. (eds.). Crimes of War: Guilt and Denial in the Twentieth Century. New York: The New Press. pp.224–227. ISBN1-56584-654-0.
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