A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, attention, arousal, and memory. It acts at both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems.
The phenomenon of sensory receptor adjustment to different levels of stimulation; critical for allowing sensory systems to operate over a wide dynamic range.
The outer region of the adrenal gland, responsible for producing steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, which regulate metabolism and stress responses.
A type of brainwave oscillation in the frequency range of 8–13 Hz, commonly associated with relaxed, wakeful states and measured using electroencephalography (EEG).
A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain.
A language disorder resulting from brain damage, most often in the left hemisphere, that affects the production or comprehension of speech and writing.
A form of programmed cell death involved in development and disease. In the nervous system, apoptosis shapes neural circuits and removes damaged neurons.
A star-shaped glial cell in the central nervous system involved in maintaining the blood–brain barrier, regulating neurotransmitter levels, and supporting neuronal function.
A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary physiological processes, including heart rate, digestion, and respiration. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts action potentials away from the cell body to synaptic terminals, where neurotransmitters are released.
A reflex where the big toe extends upward and the other toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stimulated. Present in infants, but indicative of damage to the corticospinal tract in adults.
A region of the somatosensory cortex in rodents that contains clusters of neurons corresponding to individual whiskers, used as a model for studying sensory processing and plasticity.
A group of subcortical nuclei involved in motor control, procedural learning, routine behaviors or "habits", and cognition. Dysfunction is associated with Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and other movement disorders.
A type of brain wave oscillation in the frequency range of approximately 13–30 Hz, typically associated with active concentration, alertness, and cognitive engagement.
In neuroscience, refers to structures or functions that involve both sides of the brain or body. For example, bilateral activation may occur in both hemispheres during a cognitive task.
A phenomenon that occurs when two different images are presented to each eye, and perception alternates between them. It is used to study visual awareness and consciousness.
A type of amacrine cell that transmits signals from photoreceptors (rods and cones) to ganglion cells in the eye, playing a key role in visual processing.
A mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania, associated with dysregulation in neurotransmitter systems and structural brain changes.
A selective barrier formed by endothelial cells lining brain capillaries that restricts the passage of substances from the bloodstream into the central nervous system, protecting the brain from pathogens and toxins.
The central organ of the nervous system, responsible for processing sensory information, regulating bodily functions, and enabling thought, emotion, memory, and consciousness.
A protein that supports the survival of existing neurons and encourages the growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses. It is crucial for long-term memory and synaptic plasticity.
Also called neuroplasticity, this refers to the brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections throughout life, especially after injury or in response to learning and experience.
The posterior part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and regulates essential functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep.
A set of interconnected cavities within the brain that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Includes the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles.
Patterns of electrical activity in the brain, typically detected by electroencephalography (EEG). Brain waves are categorized by frequency, such as alpha, beta, delta, and theta waves.
A technology that enables direct communication between the brain and an external device, often used in research, prosthetics, and communication aids for individuals with disabilities.
A region in the frontal lobe, typically in the left hemisphere, associated with the production of speech. Damage can result in Broca's aphasia, characterized by impaired speech fluency.
Regions of the cerebral cortex defined by Korbinian Brodmann based on cytoarchitecture. These areas are still widely used to describe functional brain localization (e.g., Brodmann area 17 = primary visual cortex).
A pattern of rapid spikes from a neuron followed by a period of quiescence. It plays a role in sensory encoding and signal amplification in various brain circuits.
A type of ion channel located on the cell membrane that allows the selective entry of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) into the neuron, playing a crucial role in neurotransmitter release, gene expression, and synaptic plasticity.
A compound found in chili peppers that activates TRPV1 receptors on sensory neurons, leading to the sensation of heat or burning. It is used in research and in topical analgesics for chronic pain.
A C-shaped structure located in the basal ganglia, involved in motor control, learning, memory, and reward processing. It works closely with the putamen and globus pallidus.
A brain structure located at the back of the skull that plays a central role in motor coordination, balance, posture, and some cognitive functions such as attention and language.
The outermost layer of the cerebrum, composed of gray matter. It is involved in higher-order brain functions such as sensory perception, language, decision-making, and voluntary motor control.
One of the two halves of the cerebrum, divided into left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere specializes in different functions but communicates via the corpus callosum.
A clear fluid found in the brain and spinal cord that cushions neural tissue, removes waste, and provides nutrients. It circulates through the ventricular system and subarachnoid space.
A sensory receptor that responds to chemical stimuli, such as taste molecules or blood oxygen levels. Located in tissues including the tongue, nasal cavity, and blood vessels.
A network of cells located in the ventricles of the brain that produces cerebrospinal fluid and contributes to the maintenance of the blood–CSF barrier.
A cellular response to neuronal injury, characterized by swelling of the cell body and dispersal of Nissl substance, indicating a disruption in protein synthesis.
A part of the limbic system located on the medial side of the cerebral hemispheres. It is involved in emotion formation, pain perception, decision-making, and cognitive control.
The set of mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Includes attention, memory, language, and problem-solving.
A state of awareness of self and the environment. In neuroscience, it involves the coordinated activity of multiple brain regions, particularly the thalamocortical system.
A vertically organized group of neurons in the cerebral cortex that processes the same type of information, such as orientation or location in space. It is a basic functional unit of the cortex.
A rare and fatal neurodegenerative disorder caused by misfolded prion proteins. It leads to rapid cognitive decline, motor dysfunction, and ultimately death.
A developmental window during which the nervous system is particularly sensitive to certain environmental stimuli, crucial for proper development of functions such as vision and language.
The ability of one sensory modality to reorganize and compensate in another’s absence (e.g., visual cortex being recruited for touch in individuals who are blind).
A small, membranous protrusion from a neuron's dendrite that typically receives input from a single synapse of an axon. Spines are key sites for synaptic strength and plasticity.
A change in membrane potential that makes the interior of a neuron more positive relative to the outside, often initiating an action potential if a threshold is reached.
A neuron that originates in the brain or brainstem and projects downward through the spinal cord to influence motor circuits and autonomic function. Descending neurons are critical for voluntary movement, postural control, and reflex modulation. Major descending pathways include the corticospinal, reticulospinal, rubrospinal, and vestibulospinal tracts.
A branch of neuroscience focused on how the nervous system develops from embryonic stages through adulthood, including neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and pruning.
A form of magnetic resonance imaging that maps the diffusion of water molecules in brain tissue to visualize white matter tracts and structural connectivity.
A region of the forebrain that includes structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus. It plays a role in sensory relay, autonomic function, and endocrine regulation.
A form of traumatic brain injury where widespread lesions in white matter tracts occur due to rapid acceleration or deceleration, commonly associated with concussions and coma.
A situation where one cognitive function is impaired while another is preserved, often used to infer the independence of brain processes or structures.
Also known as fraternal twins; twins that result from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm. Used in genetic studies to explore heritability in neurological traits.
A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, motor control, and mood regulation. Imbalances are associated with disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and addiction.
A philosophical position asserting that the mind and body are fundamentally distinct entities. In neuroscience, it contrasts with monistic and physicalist views of consciousness.
A motor protein that moves along microtubules in the cytoskeleton, transporting cellular cargo toward the center of the cell. In neurons, dynein is important for retrograde axonal transport.
A motor speech disorder resulting from impaired control of the muscles used in speech, often due to neurological damage to the brainstem or cerebellum.
A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulty with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, often linked to deficits in phonological processing and left hemisphere brain function.
A non-invasive method of recording electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. It is commonly used to study sleep, epilepsy, and cognitive processes.
A psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect, often used for treatment-resistant depression.
A conductor used to detect or deliver electrical signals in neural recording or stimulation. Electrodes can be surface (non-invasive), intracranial, or implanted.
The study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. In neuroscience, it often involves measuring voltage changes or currents in neurons.
A neuromodulatory system composed of endocannabinoids, receptors (e.g., CB1), and enzymes. It regulates processes such as appetite, pain, mood, and memory.
A collection of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. It interacts with the nervous system to regulate metabolism, stress, and growth.
Originating from within an organism, tissue, or cell. In neuroscience, it typically refers to naturally occurring neurotransmitters or signaling molecules.
A theoretical physical trace or biological substrate of memory in the brain. The term is used in memory research to describe the neural changes underlying a specific memory.
A steroid hormone that, in addition to reproductive functions, affects brain structure, cognition, and neuroprotection, particularly in areas such as the hippocampus.
Cell death caused by excessive stimulation by neurotransmitters such as glutamate, leading to calcium overload and neuronal damage. It is implicated in stroke and neurodegenerative diseases.
The process by which vesicles release their contents outside the cell. In neurons, it refers to the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
A cranial nerve that controls the muscles of facial expression, conveys taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, and carries parasympathetic fibers to salivary and lacrimal glands.
A short-term increase in synaptic strength resulting from prior activity, due to residual calcium in the presynaptic terminal. It contributes to short-term plasticity and temporal coding.
A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an aversive event. It is often used to study emotional memory and the role of the amygdala.
An electrical potential recorded from a population of neurons, often reflecting the summed synaptic input to a region. Measured using electroencephalography or implanted electrodes.
A C-shaped bundle of white matter fibers that connects the hippocampus to the hypothalamus and other structures in the limbic system. Important for memory and emotional regulation.
A region of the cerebral cortex involved in decision-making, planning, motor function, problem-solving, and aspects of personality. Located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere.
A measure of how different brain regions interact during rest or tasks, often assessed using fMRI or EEG by examining correlations in activity over time.
A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygenation (BOLD signal). It is used to study brain function in real time.
A brain region located in the temporal and occipital lobes involved in high-level visual processing, including facial recognition and object categorization.
A specialized part of the fusiform gyrus that responds selectively to faces. It is often studied in the context of prosopagnosia (face blindness) and visual expertise.
The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It reduces neuronal excitability and is involved in sleep, anxiety, and motor control.
A protective reflex that prevents choking, triggered by stimulation of the back of the throat. It involves cranial nerves IX and X and is used to assess brainstem function.
A direct electrical connection between adjacent neurons or glial cells formed by connexin proteins. Gap junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass rapidly between cells.
A genetic technique used to inactivate or "knock out" a specific gene in an organism to study its function. Widely used in neuroscience to explore gene roles in brain development and behavior.
An increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on an individual's genetic makeup. In neuroscience, it is relevant to conditions like schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease.
A relay structure in the thalamus. The lateral geniculate body is involved in visual processing; the medial geniculate body is involved in auditory processing.
A scaffolding protein that anchors inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors (GABA and glycine) at postsynaptic sites. Essential for synapse formation and stability.
A dense accumulation of glial cells, particularly astrocytes, that forms after central nervous system injury. It helps contain damage but can also inhibit axonal regeneration.
A highly aggressive and malignant brain tumor arising from glial cells. It is the most common primary brain cancer in adults and often has a poor prognosis.
A class of steroid hormones released by the adrenal cortex in response to stress. They influence metabolism and have significant effects on memory and the hippocampus.
The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It is essential for learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity, but excessive levels can cause excitotoxicity.
An inhibitory neurotransmitter found primarily in the spinal cord and brainstem. It acts via glycine receptors and contributes to motor control and reflexes.
A large family of membrane receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways through G-proteins. GPCRs are critical in neurotransmission, hormone signaling, and sensory perception.
A small neuron found in the cerebellum, olfactory bulb, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Granule cells play important roles in sensory and motor information processing.
An autoimmune disease that can affect the central nervous system, sometimes causing neuropathy, headaches, or stroke-like symptoms due to vascular inflammation.
Brain tissue composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons. It is responsible for information processing and synaptic transmission.
A naturally occurring protein that stimulates cell growth, differentiation, and survival. Examples include BDNF, NGF, and EGF in neural development and repair.
The process by which the cerebral cortex develops folds (gyri) and grooves (sulci) during brain development. Gyrification increases the surface area of the brain, allowing for greater cognitive capacity within the limited volume of the skull.
A perception in the absence of external stimulus, such as hearing voices or seeing things that are not present. Common in conditions like schizophrenia or sensory deprivation.
The two symmetrical halves of the brain—left and right—that control opposite sides of the body. Each hemisphere has specialized functions but works in coordination with the other.
The posterior part of the brain, including the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum. It regulates vital autonomic functions and coordinates movement.
A brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe, critical for memory formation, spatial navigation, and learning. Damage is associated with anterograde amnesia.
The regulation of internal conditions to maintain a stable physiological state. The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating temperature, hunger, and other homeostatic processes.
A distorted representation of the human body based on the relative amount of cortex devoted to each body part, especially in the somatosensory and motor areas.
A type of retinal interneuron that connects photoreceptors and helps integrate and regulate input in the outer retina, contributing to contrast enhancement.
A signaling molecule released by glands that affects target cells in other parts of the body. Some hormones, like cortisol and estrogen, influence brain function and behavior.
A genetic neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the HTT gene, leading to motor dysfunction, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms. It involves degeneration of the basal ganglia.
A condition in which excess cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the brain's ventricles, leading to increased intracranial pressure. It may result from developmental issues, trauma, or infection.
A region of the brain below the thalamus that regulates homeostatic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and circadian rhythms. It controls the pituitary gland and links the nervous and endocrine systems.
A condition unintentionally caused by medical treatment or diagnostic procedures. In neuroscience, may refer to nerve damage, seizures, or cognitive effects resulting from interventions.
Unconscious memory of skills and procedures, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument. Associated with brain structures like the basal ganglia and cerebellum.
A computational method used to separate mixed signals into independent sources. Commonly used in EEG and fMRI to identify distinct brain activity patterns.
A type of synaptic potential that makes a neuron less likely to fire an action potential, usually by allowing chloride or potassium ions to enter the cell.
A standardized measure of cognitive ability. In neuroscience, research explores how brain structure and function relate to individual differences in IQ.
A neuron that connects other neurons within a neural circuit, typically within the same brain region or spinal segment. Often inhibitory and essential for reflexes and signal modulation.
The pressure inside the skull, exerted by brain tissue, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid. Abnormal levels can cause headaches, vision problems, or brain damage.
A pore-forming membrane protein that allows ions to pass in and out of neurons. Ion channels are critical for generating and propagating electrical signals.
A type of receptor that directly opens an ion channel upon neurotransmitter binding, allowing rapid synaptic transmission (e.g., NMDA receptor, AMPA receptor).
A type of focal seizure that begins in one area of the body (typically a finger or toe) and "marches" to adjacent areas, reflecting orderly spread of abnormal activity in the motor cortex.
A historical theory of emotion proposing that emotions result from physiological responses to stimuli (e.g., "We are afraid because we tremble"). While outdated, it laid groundwork for modern affective neuroscience.
A stretch reflex elicited by tapping the chin, which causes the jaw to jerk upward. Used clinically to assess integrity of the trigeminal nerve and brainstem reflex circuits.
The variability in timing of neural spike trains or signal transmission, especially in motor units or brain-computer interface systems. High jitter can affect signal fidelity.
A signaling cascade involved in stress responses, apoptosis, and neurodegeneration. Dysregulation of the JNK pathway is linked to Alzheimer’s disease and neuronal injury.
A rare genetic disorder characterized by abnormal development of the cerebellar vermis and brainstem, leading to hypotonia, ataxia, abnormal breathing, and developmental delay.
A form of cell-to-cell communication where signaling molecules are transmitted directly through contact, rather than being secreted. Important in neural development and synaptogenesis.
A bundle of fibers within the inferior cerebellar peduncle that connects the vestibular nuclei to the cerebellum, involved in balance and eye movement coordination.
A structural region where neurons, glia, or epithelial cells make close contact. In the nervous system, includes tight junctions and adherens junctions that help form the blood–brain barrier.
A subtype of ionotropic glutamate receptor involved in fast excitatory synaptic transmission. Kainate receptors play roles in learning and are implicated in seizure disorders.
A genetic condition characterized by delayed or absent puberty and an impaired sense of smell. It results from disrupted migration of olfactory and gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons.
The process of nuclear division during cell division. In the context of developmental neuroscience, it describes how neural progenitor cells divide in the developing brain.
A visual profile of an organism’s chromosomes. In neuroscience, used in research or diagnostics for identifying chromosomal abnormalities linked to neurodevelopmental disorders.
The sense of limb and body movement, closely related to proprioception. It is mediated by mechanoreceptors in muscles and joints and processed in the somatosensory cortex.
A process by which repeated sub-threshold electrical or chemical stimulation of the brain leads to progressively more intense seizures. Used as a model for epilepsy.
A psychiatric disorder characterized by recurrent urges to steal items not needed for personal use or value. Considered in neuropsychiatry as a type of impulse control disorder involving frontal lobe dysfunction.
A behavioral disorder caused by bilateral lesions of the amygdala and temporal lobes, resulting in hyperorality, hypersexuality, and emotional blunting.
A genetic technique where a gene is replaced or inserted at a specific locus, allowing researchers to study the function of specific mutations in neural systems.
A genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been turned off through targeted mutation. Frequently used to study gene function in brain development and behavior.
A chronic memory disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, most commonly due to chronic alcohol misuse. It involves degeneration of the mammillary bodies and medial thalamus.
A key metabolic pathway that provides energy to neurons. Although a general biology term, it is critical in neuroscience for understanding brain metabolism and mitochondrial function.
An old device used to record changes in physiological activity over time, such as muscle contractions or nerve responses. Historically significant in neuroscience research.
The acquisition of new knowledge or skills through experience, study, or teaching. In neuroscience, learning is linked to synaptic plasticity and neural circuit changes.
A neurobiological process through which experience induces lasting changes in the nervous system, leading to the acquisition or modification of behavior, knowledge, or skills.
A group of interconnected brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and olfaction. Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex.
A long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from their synchronous activation. A major cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.
A burst of action potentials generated by the activation of low-threshold, T-type calcium channels in response to a small depolarization from a hyperpolarized membrane potential. Commonly observed in thalamic neurons, low-threshold spikes enable rhythmic firing and are important for sleep-related oscillations and sensory signal gating.
A state during which the dreamer is aware that they are dreaming and may be able to exert control over the dream. Associated with increased prefrontal cortex activity.
A standardized test battery used to assess a wide range of cognitive and motor functions. Based on the work of Alexander Luria, it helps localize brain dysfunction.
An event-related potential detected via EEG that reflects automatic brain response to deviations in auditory stimuli. Used in studies of perception and schizophrenia.
The outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex (in some regions), containing relatively few neurons and mostly dendrites, axons, and synapses.
A specialized MRI technique that measures concentrations of certain brain chemicals or metabolites, aiding in diagnosis of tumors and metabolic disorders.
A neurological disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden sleep attacks, and sometimes cataplexy. It involves dysfunction in the brain's regulation of sleep–wake cycles.
A newly coined word or expression. In neuropsychology, may refer to nonsensical or made-up words produced by individuals with certain types of aphasia.
A self-renewing progenitor cell capable of generating neurons and glial cells. Found in the developing brain and certain adult brain regions such as the hippocampus.
The progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, often leading to cell death. Seen in disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.
The physiological process by which a given neuron uses chemicals to regulate diverse populations of neurons. May be endogenous (e.g., dopamine) or externally applied via electrical stimulation.
A dense network of interwoven nerve fibers, dendrites, and glial processes where synaptic activity occurs, commonly found in the gray matter of the brain.
A medical field combining aspects of neurology and psychiatry to treat disorders with both neurological and psychiatric components, such as OCD or Tourette syndrome.
The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often using cognitive testing and brain imaging to assess individuals with brain injury or disease.
A chemical substance released at the end of a neuron’s axon that transmits a signal across a synapse to another cell. Examples include glutamate, dopamine, and serotonin.
The point in the brainstem where the fourth ventricle narrows to become the central canal of the spinal cord. Used as an anatomical landmark in neuroanatomy.
The rearmost lobe of the cerebral cortex, primarily responsible for visual processing, including interpretation of color, motion, and spatial orientation.
A cranial nerve that controls most of the eye's movements, including those of the eyelid and pupil constriction. Damage may result in diplopia or ptosis.
The first brain structure to process olfactory (smell) information. Receives input from sensory neurons in the nasal cavity and sends projections to the olfactory cortex and limbic system.
The point at which the optic nerves from both eyes partially cross, allowing visual information from each eye to be processed in both hemispheres of the brain.
A technique that uses light-sensitive proteins to control the activity of genetically targeted neurons. Widely used in neuroscience research to study circuit function.
A prefrontal brain region involved in decision-making, reward processing, and emotional regulation. Dysfunction is linked to addiction and impulsivity.
A vertical column of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to lines of the same orientation. Part of the brain’s system for processing visual features.
Repetitive rhythmic activity in neurons or neural networks. Neural oscillations, such as alpha waves and gamma waves, are observed in brain activity recordings.
An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. In neuroscience, pain is studied through nociception, pain pathways, and perception.
A region of the cerebral cortex located near the top and back of the brain, involved in processing somatosensory information, spatial orientation, and body awareness.
A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
A visual processing stream originating in small ganglion cells of the retina, responsible for high-acuity and color vision. Projects to the lateral geniculate nucleus.
A midbrain region involved in pain modulation, defensive behavior, and autonomic regulation. Contains opioid receptors and descending pain control pathways.
A neuroimaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to measure metabolic processes, often used to study brain activity, neurotransmitter systems, and disease progression.
The observable characteristics of an organism resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. In neuroscience, may include behavioral traits, brain structure, or disease symptoms.
A famous historical case in neuroscience involving a railroad worker who survived a frontal lobe injury, providing early evidence of the brain’s role in personality and behavior.
A technique that analyzes EEG data using mathematical algorithms and statistical comparisons to identify abnormalities in brainwave activity. Used in research, clinical diagnostics, and neurofeedback.
The process by which neurotransmitters are released in discrete packets (quanta) from synaptic vesicles. Each quantum represents the contents of one vesicle.
A resting or inactive phase of a neuron or glial cell in which there is minimal metabolic or electrical activity. Relevant in stem cell research and neuronal excitability.
A rare chronic inflammatory neurological disorder that typically affects one hemisphere of the brain, causing seizures, progressive weakness, and cognitive decline.
A protein involved in regulating neuronal migration and positioning during brain development. Disruption is associated with lissencephaly and schizophrenia.
The phase during which a neuron can fire another action potential, but only with a stronger-than-normal stimulus. Follows the absolute refractory period.
A thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors and neurons responsible for detecting light and initiating visual processing.
The movement of materials from the axon terminal back to the cell body, typically via dynein motors. Used for recycling vesicles and transporting signals.
A rare neurodevelopmental disorder, primarily affecting females, caused by mutations in the MECP2 gene. Characterized by developmental regression, motor problems, and seizures.
A cellular organelle responsible for protein synthesis. In neurons, local ribosome activity occurs in dendrites and axons, supporting synaptic plasticity.
A transcription factor involved in sensory neuron differentiation and pain signaling. Active during embryonic development and in peripheral nervous system patterning.
A severe mental disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior. Associated with abnormalities in dopamine signaling and cortical connectivity.
A neuron that responds to external stimuli such as light, touch, sound, or chemical signals and transmits sensory information to the central nervous system.
The capacity to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily accessible state for a short period of time. Often contrasted with long-term memory.
The part of the central nervous system housed within the vertebral column. It transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body and controls reflexes.
A condition resulting from surgical severing of the corpus callosum, often performed to treat severe epilepsy. Reveals the functional specialization of brain hemispheres.
A phenomenon in visual perception where light rays entering the eye near the center of the pupil are more effective in eliciting a visual response than those entering near the edge.
A condition where poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death. Symptoms depend on the affected brain region and may include paralysis, speech impairment, and memory loss.
A region of the medial frontal cortex involved in the planning and coordination of complex, internally generated movements. The SMA contributes to motor sequence initiation, bimanual coordination, and motor imagery.
A neurological disorder characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements, typically of the face or limbs. Often a side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic medications.
A microtubule-associated protein involved in stabilizing neuronal cytoskeletons. Abnormal tau aggregation is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies.
The dorsal part of the midbrain, containing structures such as the superior colliculus and inferior colliculus, involved in visual and auditory reflexes.
A deep brain structure that serves as a major relay center, transmitting sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. It also plays a role in consciousness and alertness.
A narrow cavity in the brain located between the two halves of the diencephalon, connected to the lateral and fourth ventricles and filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
A type of generalized seizure involving an initial tonic phase of muscle stiffening followed by a clonic phase of rhythmic jerking. Often accompanied by loss of consciousness.
A noninvasive method to stimulate or inhibit brain activity using magnetic fields. Used in both research and treatment for depression and other disorders.
A recurrent biological cycle that occurs more than once in 24 hours, such as stages of sleep. In neuroscience, it refers to shorter rhythms regulating hormonal release, arousal, or sleep cycles.
In classical conditioning, an automatic, reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to food). Studied in behavioral neuroscience.
A mood disorder characterized by persistent low mood, lack of energy, and anhedonia, without manic episodes. Associated with altered activity in the prefrontal cortex and limbic structures.
A neuron originating in the cerebral cortex or brainstem that transmits motor signals to lower motor neurons. Damage leads to spasticity, hyperreflexia, and weakness.
An increase in the number or sensitivity of receptors on a neuron, often in response to reduced stimulation or drug exposure. A mechanism of plasticity.
Inflammation of the uveal tract (including the iris, ciliary body, and choroid), which can cause visual disturbances and is sometimes associated with autoimmune neurological disorders.
Cranial nerve X, responsible for parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. It also conveys sensory information from the viscera to the brainstem.
Also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), it regulates water balance and blood pressure. In the brain, vasopressin influences social behavior and memory.
A visual processing pathway ("what" pathway) that travels from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe and is involved in object recognition and form representation.
The sensory system that contributes to balance, spatial orientation, and coordination of head and eye movements. Includes the semicircular canals and otolith organs.
The region of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual information. Includes primary visual cortex (V1) and surrounding higher-order visual areas.
The entire area that can be seen when the eyes are fixed in one position. Deficits in specific areas of the visual field are used to localize brain lesions.
A procedure used to determine language and memory functions in each hemisphere of the brain. It involves anesthetizing one hemisphere at a time, usually with sodium amobarbital, and is commonly performed prior to epilepsy surgery.
A process of degeneration that occurs in an axon distal to the site of injury. It is a key feature of nerve damage in both the central and peripheral nervous systems.
A psychomotor symptom often associated with catatonia and schizophrenia in which a patient’s limbs remain in a fixed position after being moved by someone else.
A principle in sensory neuroscience that describes the relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the perceived intensity. Suggests logarithmic scaling of sensation.
A region of the posterior superior temporal gyrus in the dominant hemisphere, involved in language comprehension. Damage here causes Wernicke’s aphasia, which impairs understanding of spoken and written language.
A neurological condition caused by thiamine deficiency, typically seen in chronic alcoholics. It manifests with a triad of symptoms: confusion, ataxia, and ophthalmoplegia.
Tissue in the brain and spinal cord composed primarily of myelinated axons, facilitating communication between gray matter regions. Plays a central role in signal transmission speed and integration.
A rare genetic disorder involving impaired copper metabolism that leads to copper buildup in the brain, liver, and other tissues. Neurological symptoms include tremors, dystonia, and psychiatric changes.
A rare genetic disorder involving diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, optic atrophy, and deafness (DIDMOAD). Associated with neurodegeneration and mitochondrial dysfunction.
A form of short-term memory that allows temporary storage and manipulation of information necessary for tasks like reasoning and comprehension. Often localized to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
A neurological condition caused by radial nerve damage, resulting in an inability to extend the wrist and fingers. Often associated with nerve compression or trauma.
A process in female mammals where one of the two X chromosomes is randomly silenced in each cell to balance gene dosage with males. Some neurological disorders, such as Rett syndrome, are influenced by X-inactivation patterns.
A genetic disorder affecting the breakdown of very-long-chain fatty acids, leading to their accumulation in the brain and adrenal glands. It causes progressive demyelination and adrenal insufficiency.
A group of inherited cognitive disorders associated with mutations on the X chromosome. Examples include Fragile X syndrome and MECP2 duplication syndrome.
A noble gas with neuroprotective and anesthetic properties. It has been studied for its NMDA receptor antagonism and minimal side effects on brain function.
The transplantation of cells or tissues from one species to another for research or therapeutic purposes. In neuroscience, fetal pig or rat neural cells may be studied in primate models to investigate brain repair.
A condition of dry mouth that may result from neurological disorders affecting autonomic control of salivary glands, such as Parkinson's disease or side effects of anticholinergic drugs.
A reflex consisting of the simultaneous inhalation of air and stretching of the eardrums, followed by exhalation. Neurologically, yawning is linked to arousal, social communication, and thermoregulation of the brain.
A psychological principle describing the relationship between arousal and performance, suggesting that moderate arousal optimizes cognitive and motor performance. Widely referenced in neuroscience of stress and motivation.
A genetic deletion on the Y chromosome that can affect brain development and function. Though rare, YCMs have been linked to neurodevelopmental conditions and fertility-related hormonal regulation.
A plant-derived alkaloid and alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonist. In neuroscience research, it is used to model anxiety and stress responses in animals and humans.
A theory of trichromatic color vision proposing that the human eye perceives color through the relative activity of three types of photoreceptors sensitive to red, green, and blue light. Supported by modern neuroscience of vision.
A class of non-benzodiazepine medications (e.g., zolpidem, zaleplon, eszopiclone) used to treat insomnia. They act as GABA_A receptor agonists and influence sleep architecture.
A rare congenital disorder caused by peroxisomal dysfunction, affecting brain development, myelination, and motor function. Symptoms include hypotonia, seizures, and impaired neuronal migration.
A small region of gray matter in the subthalamus involved in sensorimotor integration, attention, and limbic functions. Its precise role remains under investigation.
The genetic relationship between alleles. In neuroscience research, zygosity is important in twin studies exploring heritability of traits like intelligence, brain volume, and psychiatric disorders.
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